Nagpur

Nāgpur is the largest city in central India (2001 Census) and the second capital of the state of Maharashtra. It is headquarter of Nagpur district and Nagpur division. Nagpur UA population 2,420,000; is 13^th largest urban conglomeration in India^[4] and 114^th largest city in world. It ranks as 143^rd largest urban area in world in terms of population.^[5] It is the seat of annual winter session of Maharashtra Vidhan Sabha. The city is the commercial and political center of the state's eastern Vidarbha region. Nagpur lies in central India with Zero mile marker, (indicating the geographical center of India) located here.^[6] City was founded by Gond people but later became part of Maratha Empire under the Bhonsles. British East India Company took over the city in 19th century and made it the capital of Central Provinces and Berar. After first state reorganization, it lost the capital status but was made second capital of Maharashtra. Nagpur is an important location for Dalit Buddhist movement and Hindu nationalist organizations like RSS and VHP. Nagpur is strategically important as it is situated at the cross-roads of India's North-South and East-West routes by road, rail and air.

The food culture in Vidarbha is quite distinct from rest of Maharashtra. Nagpur is famous for it Saoji restaurants. Saoji food is very spicy but not harmful to the body, as the process of cooking has been modified to overcome any health problems^[35].

Prominent cultural and literary societies in Nagpur include Vidarbha Sahitya Sangh(for development of Marathi), Vidarbha Rashtrabhasha Prachar Samiti (promotion and spreading Hindi) and Vidarbha Hindi Sahitya Sammelan (for promoting Hindi). The Nagpur central museum (estb 1863) maintains collections are mainly for Vidarbha region. ^[36] The South Central Cultural Centre also actively sponsors various other cultural events in Nagpur city, such as the Orange City Craft Mela and Folk Dance Festival, which is noted for its numerous folk-dances. ^[37] City was judged as the cleanest and second greenest in India after Bangalore.^[38] The Vidarbha Cricket Association Ground (VCA) in Nagpur is one of the nine test venues in the country. A new stadium of VCA is coming up on Wardha road which boasts a seating capacity of 80,000 people.^[39][40]. INOX Nagpur (area:45,000 square feet) is the first multiplex in city. The present day Maharajbagh zoo was originally a garden developed by the Bhonsle rulers.^[41]. Government of Maharashtra has approved a new safari park of international standards besides Gorewada Lake.

The VCA Stadium in Nagpur

Nagpur is known for staying calm during communal conflicts in India.^[42] Deekshabhoomi, the largest hollow stupa, is located in Nagpur. It is an important place of dalit buddhist movement^[43]. Sri Poddareshwar Ram Mandir and Shri Mahalaxmi Devi temple of Koradi are important Hindu temples^[44]. Several important religious events are observed in the city throughout the year. Ram Navami is celebrated in Nagpur with shobha yatra which a massive procession of floats depicting various events from the Ramayana^[45]. Like the rest of India, Nagpurkars celebrate major Hindu festivals like Diwali, Holi and Dussera with fervour and enthusiasm. Celebrations lasting for several days are held on Ganesh Chaturthi and Durga Puja festivals in virtually every small locality in the city. There is sizable muslim population in the city, mostly coming from the service-class, working in local factories and government offices. There is a big concentration of Muslim-Bohras in the city who are mostly into hardware business. The famous places of worship for muslim is Jama Masjid-Mominpura, Bohri Jamatkhana-Itwari, Ahbaab Chowk Masjid, Baba Taj Dargah-Tajabad Umred Rd., Masjid-Sadar and Chhaoni. Processions are also held on important festivals of other religions such as Eid e Milad, Guru Nanak Jayanti, Mahavir Jayanti, Durga puja, Ganesh Puja and Moharram. Taj Baba Dargah is a good example of communal harmony and peaceful co-existence in Nagpur city, as people shed their religious, caste, cultural and language barriers to pay their respect to the great Soofi Saint. Every year, Government of Maharashtra organizes a week long Kalidas Festival, a series of music and dance performances, by national level artist.^[46] A number of newspapers are published from Nagpur in English, Hindi and Marathi. The Hitavada leads as English newspaper followed by local edition of The Times of India and Lokmat Times. Lokmat, Sakal, Tarun Bharat, Loksatta are some of the Marathi newspapers. Dainik Bhaskar and Nav Bharat are the Hindi dailies. Apart from the All India Radio, which has its own VividBharati service in FM band(107.8 MHz), the city now has private FM channels Radio Mirchi(98.3 MHz), My FM(94.3 MHz), Radio City(91.1 MHz)and S FM. Doordarshan TV service is available even terrestially while private satellite TV channels are available through cable operators or via Direct to Home (DTH) service.

Economy

The Butibori Industrial Estate

Nagpur has been the center of commerce in the Vidarbha region since early days and is an important trading location. However, Nagpur's economic importance had gradually declined relative to Mumbai and Pune after the merging of Vidarbha into the Maharashtra because of a prolonged period of neglect by the state government.^[47] Nagpur's economy is now recovering from past slowdown^[48] and city has attracted Rupees 5,000 crore in investment in 2004.^[49]. During the slowdown, state and central government offices were a major source of employment in the city. Nagpur regional office of Reserve Bank of India was opened on September 10, 1956^[50]. The Butibori industrial area is the largest in all of Asia in terms of area.^[51] The estate's largest unit is of Indo Rama Synthetics, which manufactures synthetic polyester yarn. Other units in Butibori include the power transmission company KEC, Hyundai Unitech, ACC Nihon Castings Ltd.^[52]. Koradi & Khaparkheda are 2 thermal power stations located near Nagpur and operated by MSPGCL.

An Orange farm on the outskirts of Nagpur city

The Hingna industrial estate located on the western fringes of the city is made up of around 900 small and medium industrial units. The major ones among them are tractor manufacturing plant of Mahindra and Mahindra, casting units of NECO Ltd. (the country's largest casting group),^[53] units of International Combustions, Bajaj Auto group, Candico (the SECOND largest confectionery manufacturing plant in India ^[54]), Ajanta toothbrushes and Sanvijay Group (largest steel rolling group of companies for long products in Central India)^[55]. Nagpur is home to ice-cream manufacturer Dinshaws, Indian dry food manufacturer Haldiram's and Ayurvedic product company Vicco.^[56]

Currently, Nagpur is witnessing an economic boom as "Multi-modal International Cargo Hub and Airport at Nagpur(MIHAN)" is being developed. MIHAN will be used for handling heavy cargo coming from south east Asia and Middle east Asia. Project will also include Rupees 10,000 crore Special Economic Zone (SEZ)^[57] for Information Technology (IT) companies. It is expected that the area around the MIHAN industrial project will become Mihanpur, a self-sufficient city when the project takes off. Mihanpur will metamorphise itself from being a satellite city to become a twin city to Nagpur just like the well known Hyderabad-Secunderabad twins.

Education

A view of one of the colleges in Nagpur

Nagpur is a major education centre in Central India^[58]. Nagpur has both "municipal schools"; (run by the NMC) and private schools (run by trusts or individuals), which in some cases receive financial aid from the government. City has 10+2+3/4 plan which is followed by Junior college and later degree course. Founded in 1923, Nagpur University^[59] is one of the oldest in the country^[60] and has geographical jurisdiction over the five districts of Nagpur division in addition to giving affiliation to hundreds of colleges. Nagpur has three medical colleges and Maharashtra Animal and Sciences University(MAFSU) for animal sciences^[61] Nagpur has several engineering colleges which provide education in various specialty courses. Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology (VNIT) is one of the reputed technical institutes in the country and also an Institute of National Importance. Nagpur has India's only National Fire Service College that provides graduation course in Fire Engineering^[62] and Laxminarayan Institute of Technology (LIT) which one of few colleges for chemical engineering. Institute of Management Technology also has college in Nagpur.^[63] College of Agriculture in Nagpur provides impetus in agricultural research. City's Raman Science Centre promotes scientific attitude and has 133 seat planetarium^[64].

Bhosle Dumb and Deaf School, Bharat Muk Vidyalaya and Residential Blind Boys Institution provide education to physically challenged. Matru Sewa Sangh's Nandanwan school is for physically handicapped and mentally retarded children.

Bhubaneswar

Bhubaneswar pronunciation (help·info) (Oriya: BUbEnSvr, Hindi: भुवनेश्वर, in Sanskrit and Oriya/oDiA, "The Lord of the Universe") is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Orissa, India. Once the capital of ancient Kalinga, the city has a long history and is today a center for commerce and religious activity. However, the modern city of Bhubaneswar was designed by the German architect Otto Königsberger in 1946. It became the modern capital of the state of Orissa in 1948, a year after India gained its independence from Britain. Before Bhubaneswar, Cuttack was the capital of Orissa until 1947. Both Bhubaneswar and Cuttack are known as the "twin cities" of Orissa. With its vast variety of Hindu temples, Bhubaneswar is often referred to as the temple city of India.

History

The history of the Bhubaneswar-Khurda region goes back 2000 years. Emperor Kharavela established his capital in Sisupalgarh which is on the outskirts of the city. The Hathigumpha inscriptions at the Udayagiri caves and Khandagiri caves are evidence of the region's antiquity. Modern Bhubaneswar was originally meant to be a well planned city with wide roads and many gardens and parks. The plan was made by Otto H. Königsberger , a German town planner.^[1] Though part of the city has stayed faithful to the plan,^[2] it has grown rapidly over the last few decades and has made the planning process unwieldy.

Having merged its intriguing past so uniquely with its modern aspirations, it forms an integral link in the Golden Triangle that incorporates the holy city of Puri and Konark. The area is attractive to tourists for its spiritual significance. To the east are the famous Sun temple of Konark and the Jagannath Temple of Puri. The Lingaraj Temple of old Bhubaneswar, built in the 11th century, is another temple noted for its ancient history. The Khandagiri and Dhauligiri, situated on the outskirts of the city, carry monuments of the Jain monks since the times of the great king Kharavela. Another such monument is the Shantistupa, which was built with Japanese aid, as a symbol of peace at the site where the great Kalinga War took place between Emperor Ashoka and Kalinga (the old empire of Orissa).

Konark Horse in Roundabout

Bhubaneswar is known for its architecture and ancient temples The imposing spire of the Lingaraj Temple, the quiet beauty of the Vishwa Shanti Stupa and the pink translucence of the Mahavira Jain Temple in nearby Khandagiri, inspire feelings of wonder at their sheer beauty and their cross-cultural permutations.

The State Museum of Bhubaneswar offers an extensive selection of archaeological artifacts, weapons, local arts and crafts as well as insights into Orissa's natural and tribal history. The Tribal Research Institute Museum with its authentic tribal dwellings, created by the tribal craftsmen offers a bird's eye view of the State's tribal heritage.

Geography

Bhubaneswar is situated between 21° 15' North Latitude 85° 15' Longitude and at an altitude of 45 meters above sea level, the average temperatures range between 15 °C in the winter to a maximum of 40 °C to 45 °C in the summer. The south-east monsoons appear in June. The average annual rainfall is 150 cm, most of which is recorded between June and October. This large variation in temperature is because extensive development and the accompanying loss of forest cover in North India provides no hindrance to the heat and cold waves which sweep that region every year.

Geographically, Bhubaneswar is situated in the eastern coastal plains of Orissa and south-west of the river Mahanadi. The city is subdivided into a number of townships and housings. The most notable are the nine units which lie to the west of Janpath, the city's main arterial road. Initially meant to house the bulk of the city's population, the 9 Units are now emerging as commercial districts.

Economy

Orissa Secretariat

MG road, towards lower PMG

Bhubaneswar was meant to house the state's machinery and hence was designed to be a largely residential city with outlying industrial areas. The city's economy had few major players till the 1990s and was dominated by Public Sector Units, retail and small scale manufacturing.

With the economic liberalisation policy adopted by the Government of India in the 90s, Bhubaneswar received large investments in the fields of telecommunications, IT and higher education, particularly engineering. The city accounts for almost all of the IT revenue of Orissa and is one of the fastest growing regions in India in this sector. Higher Technical Education is also a big market. The city is home to around 30 engineering colleges (as of 2007) and the number is growing every year. Around 20000 engineers graduate with the Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech) degree every year. The city is also home to many tutorials and coaching institutes who prepare students for various entrance exams. The large density has earned the city the sobriquet of "Kota of the East".

Retail and Real Estate have also emerged as big players. Although the first shopping mall only opened in 2004, the response was positive enough for three more shopping malls to open up in the city. Large corporations like DLF Universal and Reliance Industries have entered the real estate market in the city. Despite this rapid growth, a large number of the populace live in slums and are below the poverty line. Migration from rural areas has led to the growth of slums which are a major challenge to the city's growth. The slum dwellers work as auto rickshaw drivers or small vendors but this is not true for everyone. A lot of them are unemployed and are being drawn into crime.

Bhubaneswar has emerged as one of the fastest growing IT hub in India. The Govt has provided with adequate land for the development of IT parks like Infocity 1 & 2. The Info City Bhubaneswar was conceived as a five star park, under the Export Promotion Industrial Parks (EPIP) Scheme to create high quality infrastructure facilities for setting up Information Technology related industries. While Infosys and Satyam Computer Services Ltd. have been present in Bhubaneswar since 1996-97, Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) and Wipro Technologies have acquired land in Infocity recently^{[citation needed]}. This has earned the state capital in eastern India the unique distinction of having the presence of the big four i.e. Infosys, Satyam, TCS and Wipro. NetHawk has opened its research and development center in Bhubaneswar since April 2005. MindTree is also allotted 30 acres of land to start its business. On 5th Nov 2007 IBM announced its planning to kickstart its SME operation in Bhubaneswar.

In ASIC and Chip Design, ASIC Architect Inc and Perfectus Technology Inc are some of the popular international companies operating from Bhubaneswar. Silicatec is the VLSI training institute in the city.

Other major IT companies including Hexaware Technologies, Ramtech Systems etc have also finalised plans for starting operations at Bhubaneswar^{[citation needed]}.

Transport

Bhubaneswar has air and rail linkages with most major cities in India. While the Biju Patnaik Airport is the only major airport in the state, an international airport is planned for 2010. In addition to airflight, Bhubaneswar is well-connected to other major Indian cities by highway.

Demographics

As of India's 2001 census,^[3] Bhubaneswar has a population of 647,302. Males constitute 56% of the population and females 44%. The city has an average literacy rate of 74%, higher than the national average of 59.5%. Ten percent of the population is under 6 years of age.The literacy rate is ever growing with huge student and white collar migrations into the city.

Culture

Udaygiri

artwork on Lingaraj temple

Dhauli

Khandagiri & Udayagiri (Jain Heritage)

The twin hills of Khandagiri & Udayagiri, 8 km from Bhubaneswar, served as the site of an ancient Jain monastery which was carved into cave like chambers in the face of the hill. Dating back to the 2nd century BC, some of the caves have beautiful carvings. The Rani Gumpha (Queen's Cave), one of the largest and double-storied, is ornately embellished with beautiful carvings. In the Hati Gumpha (Elephant Cave), King Kharavela has carved out the chronicles of his reign.

Lingaraj Temple

The 10th- or 11th-century Lingaraja temple of Bhubaneswar has been described as "the truest fusion of dream and reality." It is dedicated to Shiva. A rare masterpiece, the Lingaraja temple has been rated one of the finest examples of purely Hindu temple in India by Ferguson, the noted art critic and historian^{[citation needed]}. The surface of the 55 m-high Lingaraja temple is covered with carvings. Sculpture and architecture fused elegantly to create a perfect harmony. Devout pilgrims, who wish to go to the Jagannath temple at Puri, must first offer worship at the Lingaraja temple.

Dhauli Giri

Just 8 km away from Bhubaneswar looking down on the plains that bore witness to the gruesome war waged on Kalinga by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka the Great, stand the rock edicts of Dhauli. It was here that Ashoka, full of remorse after the Kalinga War in 261 BC, renounced his blood-thirsty campaign and turned to Buddhism. Ashoka erected two main edicts in Kalinga, one in Dhauli and the other in Jayagarh. The principles of Ashoka which reflect his compassion were inscribed on all the other edicts in his empire except Kalinga. In the Kalinga edicts he warned the people of Kalinga not to revolt and that he would take appropriate action if they did. This is in sharp contrast to all of his other edicts and proof of his political acumen^{[citation needed]}.

The edicts are remarkably well preserved, despite the fact that they date back to the 3rd century BC. A sculpted elephant, the universal symbol of Lord Buddha, tops the rock edicts. The Shanti Stupa or the peace pagoda, built through the Indo-Japanese collaboration, is located on the opposite hill.

Fairs & Festivals

On the day of Ashokashtami in the month of March, the image of Lingaraja (Lord Shiva) and other deities are taken in a procession from Lingaraja Temple to the Rameshwara Temple. Hundreds of devotees participate in pulling the chariot that carries the deities. The deities remain in the Rameshwara Temple for four days.

At the end of January comes Adivasi Mela, a fair that displays the art, artifacts, tradition, culture, and music of the tribal inhabitants of Orissa.

Durga Puja is also an important festival. Various pandals are constructed throughout the city. The largest pujas are: the Shahid Nagar Durga Puja, the Nayapalli Durga Puja, and the Rasulgarh Durga Puja.

Assam

Assam a northeastern state of India with its capital at Dispur, a suburb of the city Guwahati. Located south of the eastern Himalayas, Assam comprises the Brahmaputra and the Barak river valleys and the Karbi Anglong and the North Cachar Hills. With an area of 78,438 square kilometres (30,285 sq mi) Assam currently is almost equivalent to the size of Ireland or Austria. Assam is surrounded by the rest of the Seven Sister States: Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya. These states are connected to the rest of India via a narrow strip in West Bengal called the Siliguri Corridor or "Chicken's Neck".^[1] Assam also shares international borders with Bhutan and Bangladesh; and cultures, peoples and climate with South-East Asia—important elements in India’s “Look East” Policy. Assam became a part of India after the British occupied the region following the Treaty of Yandaboo of 1826.

Assam is known for Assam tea, petroleum resources, Assam silk and for its rich biodiversity. It has successfully conserved the one-horned Indian rhinoceros from near extinction, tiger, numerous species of birds and provides one of the last wild habitats for the Asian elephant. It is increasingly becoming a popular destination for wild-life tourism and notably Kaziranga and Manas are both World Heritage Sites.^[2] Assam was also known for its Sal tree forests and forest products, much depleted now. A land of high rainfall, Assam is endowed with lush greenery and the mighty river Brahmaputra, whose tributaries and oxbow lakes provide the region with a unique hydro-geomorphic and aesthetic environment.

Assam and its Environs: As per the plate techtonics, Assam is in the eastern-most projection of the Indian Plate, where the plate is thrusting underneath the Eurasian Plate creating a subduction zone and the Himalayas.^[3] Therefore, Assam possesses a unique geomorphic environment, with plains, dissected hills of the South Indian Plateau system and with the Himalayas all around its north, north-east and east.

Tea leaves; Assam produces a significant portion of World's tea. Today, 'tea' has become almost a brand identity for the name Assam

Etymology

Assam was known as Pragjyotisha in the Mahabharata; and Kamarupa in the 1st millennium. Assam gets it name from the Ahom kingdom (1228-1826), then known as Kingdom of Assam.^[4] The British province after 1838 and the Indian state after 1947 came to be known as Assam.

On February 27, 2006 the Government of Assam started a process to change the name of the state to Asom,^[5] a controversial move that has been opposed by the people and political organizations.^[6]

[edit] Physical geography

Main article: Physical Geography of Assam

See also: Biodiversity of Assam

Areca Nut Tree or Tamul Goss; the nut is an important element of cultural symbolism

A Golden Langur; endangered and are found in Chakrasila Sanctuary in Goalpara district

A White-winged Wood Duck or Deohanh, endangered. Mostly found in the Upper Assam Tropical Forests.

Geomorphic studies conclude that the Brahmaputra, the life-line of Assam is a paleo-river; older than the Himalayas. The river with steep gorges and rapids in Arunachal Pradesh entering Assam, becomes a braided river (at times 16 km wide) and with tributaries, creates a flood plain (Brahmaputra Valley: 80-100km wide, 1000 km long).^[7] The hills of Karbi Anglong, North Cachar and those in and close to Guwahati (also Khasi-Garo Hills) now eroded and dissected are originally parts of the South Indian Plateau system.^[7] In the south, the Barak originating in the Barail Range (Assam-Nagaland border), flows through the Cachar district with a 40-50km wide valley and confluences with the Brahmaputra in Bangladesh.

Assam is endowed with petroleum, natural gas, coal, limestone and other minor minerals such as magnetic quartzite, kaolin, sillimanites, clay and feldspar.^[8] A small quantity of iron ore is available in western districts.^[8] Discovered in 1889, all the major petroleum-gas reserves are in Upper parts. A recent USGS estimate shows 399 million barrels (63,400,000 m³) of oil, 1,178 billion cubic feet (3.34×10¹⁰ m³) of gas and 67 million barrels (10,700,000 m³) of natural gas liquids in Assam Geologic Province. ^[9]

With the “Tropical Monsoon Rainforest Climate”, Assam is temperate (Summer max. at 35-38 and winter min. at 6-8 degrees Celsius) and experiences heavy rainfall and high humidity.^{[7] [10]} The climate is characterised by heavy monsoon downpours reducing summer temperature and foggy nights and mornings in winter . Thunderstorms known as Bordoicila are frequent during the afternoons. Spring (Mar-Apr) and Autumn (Sept-Oct) are usually pleasant with moderate rainfall and temperature.

Assam is one of the richest biodiversity zones in the world and consists of tropical rainforests,^[11], deciduous forests, riverine grasslands^[12], bamboo^[13] orchards and numerous wetland^[14] ecosystems; Many are now protected as national parks and reserved forests. The Kaziranga, home of the rare Indian Rhinoceros, and Manas are two UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Assam. The state is the last refuge for numerous other endangered species such as Golden Langur (Trachypithecus geei), White-winged Wood Duck or Deohanh (Cairina scutulata), Bengal Florican, Black-breasted Parrotbill, Pygmy Hog, Greater Adjutant and so on. Some other endangered species with significant population in Assam are Tiger, Elephant, Hoolock Gibbon, Jerdon's Babbler and so on. Assam is also known for orchids.^[15]

The region is prone to natural disasters with annual floods and frequent mild earthquakes. Strong earthquakes are rare; three of these were recorded in 1869, 1897 (8.1 on the Richter scale); and in 1950 (8.6).

History

Pre-history

Assam and adjoining regions have evidences of human settlements from all the periods of the Stone ages. The hills at the height of 460 to 615 m were popular habitates probably due to availability of exposed doleritic basalt useful for tool-making.^[16]

According to Kalika Purana (c.8th-9th A.D), written in Assam, the earliest ruler was Mahiranga followed by Hatak, Sambar, Ratna and Ghatak; Naraka removed this line of rulers and established his own dynasty. It mentions that the last of the Naraka-bhauma rulers, Narak, was slain by Krishna. Naraka's son Bhagadatta, mentioned in the Mahabharata, fought for the Kauravas in the battle of Kurushetra with an army of kiratas, chinas and dwellers of the eastern coast. Later rulers of Kamarupa frequently drew their lineage from the Naraka rulers.

[edit] Ancient and medieval

A ferocious lion excavated in Madan Kamdev close to Baihata Cariali in Assam representing the powerful Kamarupa-Palas (c. 9th-10th century A.D.)

Rang Ghar, a pavilion built by Pramatta Singha (also Sunenpha; 1744–1751) in Ahom capital Rongpur, now Sibsagar; the Rang Ghar is one of the earliest pavilions of outdoor stadia in South Asia

Assam till 1950s; The new states of Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram formed in the 1960-70s. From Shillong, the capital of Assam was shifted to Dispur, now a part of Guwahati. After the Indo-China war in 1962, Arunachal Pradesh was also separated out.

Ancient Assam known as Kamarupa was ruled by powerful dynasties: the Varmanas (c.350-650A.D.), the Salstambhas (Xalostombho, c.655-900 A.D.) and the Kamarupa-Palas (c.900-1100A.D.). In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskaravarman (c.600–650A.D.), the Chinese traveler Xuan Zang visited the region and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended till c.1255A.D. by the Lunar I (c.1120-1185A.D.) and Lunar II (c.1155-1255A.D.) dynasties.^[16]

Two later dynasties, the Ahoms and the Koch left larger impacts. The Ahoms, originally a Tai group, ruled Assam for nearly 600 years (1228–1826) and the Koch, a Tibeto-Burmese, established sovereignty in c.1510A.D.. The Koch kingdom in western Assam and present North Bengal was at its zenith in the early reign of Naranarayana (c.1540-1587A.D.). It split into two in c.1581A.D, the western part as a Moghul vassel and the eastern as an Ahom satellite state. Since c 13th A.D., the nerve centre of Ahom polity was upper Assam; the kingdom was gradually extended till Karatoya river in the c.17th-18th A.D.. It was at its zenith during the reign of Sukhrungpha or Sworgodeu Rudra Simha (c.1696-1714A.D.). Among other dynasties, the Chutiyas ruled the north-eastern Assam and parts of present Arunachal Pradesh and the Kacharis ruled from Dikhow river to central and southern Assam. With expansion of Ahom kingdom, by c.1520A.D. the Chutiya areas were annexed and since c.1536A.D. Kacharis remained only in Cachar and North Cachar more as an Ahom ally then a competing force. Despite numerous invasions, mostly by the Muslim rulers, no western power ruled Assam until the arrival of the British. The most successful invader Mir Jumla, a governor of Aurangzeb, briefly occupied Garhgaon (c.1662–63A.D.) the then capital, but found it difficult to control people making guerrilla attacks on his forces, forcing them to leave. The decisive victory of the Assamese led by the great general Lachit Borphukan on the Mughals then under command of Raja Ram Singha at Saraighat (1671) has almost ended Mughal ambitions. Mughals were finally expelled in c.1682A.D. from lower Assam.

British Assam

Ahom palace intrigue, and political turmoil due to the Moamoria rebellion, aided the expansionist Burmese ruler of Ava to invade Assam and install a puppet king in 1821. With the Burmese having reached the East India Company’s borders, the First Anglo-Burmese War ensued. The war ended under the Treaty of Yandaboo^[17] in 1826, with the Company taking control of the Lower Assam and installing Purander Singh as king of Upper Assam in 1833. The arrangement lasted till 1838 and thereaftre British annexed the entire region. Initially Assam was made a part of the Bengal Presidency, then in 1906 it was a part of Eastern Bengal and Assam province and in 1912 it was reconstituted into a Chief Commissioners' province. In 1913, a Legislative Council and in 1937 the Assam Legislative Assembly was formed in Shillong, the erstwhile Capital. The British tea planters imported labour from central India adding to the demographic canvas. After few initial unsuccessful attempts to free Assam during 1850s, the Assamese since early 20th century joined and actively supported Indian National Congress against the British. In 1947, Assam inclusive of present Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya became a state of Republic of India (princely states, Manipur and Tripura became Group C provinces) and a district of Assam, Sylhet chose to join Pakistan.

Post British

Since 1947, with increasing economic problems in the region, separatist groups began forming along ethnic lines, and demands for autonomy and sovereignty grew, resulting into fragmentation of Assam.

Since mid-20th century, people from present Bangladesh have been migrating to Assam. In 1961, the Government of Assam passed a legislation making use of Assamese language compulsory; It had to be withdrawn later under pressure from Bengali speaking people in Cachar. In the 1980s the Brahmaputra valley saw a six-year Assam Agitation ^[18] triggered by the discovery of a sudden rise in registered voters on electoral rolls. It tried to force the government to identify and deport foreigners illegally migrating from neighbouring Bangladesh and changing the demographics. The agitation ended after an accord between its leaders and the Union Government, which remained unimplemented, causing simmering discontent. On the other hand, political parties neglecting the burning problem have used the Bangladeshi card as a vote bank.^[19]

The post 1970s experienced the growth of armed separatist groups like United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) ^[18] and National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB). In November 1990, the Government of India deployed the Indian army, after which low-intensity military conflicts and political homicides have been continuing for more than a decade. In recent times, ethnicity based militant groups (UPDS, DHD, KLO, HPCD etc.) have also mushroomed. Regional autonomy has been ensured for Bodos in Bodoland Territorial Council Areas (BTCA) and for the Karbis in Karbi Anglong after agitation of the communities due to sluggish rate of development and aspirations for self-government.

Tea history

This 1850 engraving shows the different stages in the process of making tea in Assam.

After discovery of Camellia sinensis (1834) in Assam followed by its tests in 1836-37 in London, the British allowed companies to rent land since 1839. Thereafter tea plantations mushroomed in Upper Assam, where the soil and the climate were most suitable. Problems with the imported labourers from China and hostilities of native Assamese resulted into migration of forced labourers from central-eastern parts of India. After initial trial and error with planting the Chinese and the Assamese-Chinese hybrid varieties, the planters later accepted the local Camellia assamica as the most suitable one for Assam. By 1850s, the industry started seeing some profits. Industry saw initial growth, when in 1861, investors were allowed to own land in Assam and it saw substantial progress with invention of new technologies and machinery for preparing processed tea during 1870s. The cost of Assam tea was lowered down manifold and became more competitive than its Chinese variant.

Despite having commercial success, tea labourers remained exploited and worked and lived under poor conditions. In the fear of greater government interference the tea growers formed The Indian Tea Association in 1888 to lobby for the continued status quo. The organization was very successful in this, and even after India’s independence conditions of the labourers have improved very little.^[20]

Karnataka

Karnataka is a state in the southern part of India and is home to some of the most sought after tourist destinations of South India. The word Karnataka is derived from karu and nadu, which means elevated land. This state has a rich history and tradition dating back to the times when the ancient rulers used to reign over this place. The capital of Karnataka is Bangalore which has significantly contributed to the technological advancement and overall commercial growth of the state. Tourism is also flourishing in leaps and bounds in Karnataka that has further added to its popularity.
Karnataka has many places of tourist interest that attract a large number of tourists from all parts of the country. Whether it is history, art, culture or entertainment, Karnataka is definitely a cause of envy for the neighboring states for the amount of importance it holds. Bangalore and Mysore are the two most important towns of Karnataka and hold prominence in the national context as well. Karnataka has been blessed by some of the nature’s wonders in the form of the Western Ghats, magnificent waterfalls, amazing wildlife and fascinating beaches. The impressions of the former rulers can be apparently felt in its architecture and medieval monuments. You can also see the Islamic influences on the architectures that are built here during your vacations in Karnataka. The well-preserved heritage of the state can be witnessed in its ancient monuments and architectures that abound in this medieval land. If you are on a trip to Karnataka, then you can look forward to the fine lodging options that can be found in all the important towns of Karnataka providing requisite facilities and fine services to meet the needs of the travelers. Karnataka is inhabited by various communities from India and has a rich and varied culture. It also occupies a prestigious place in the field of Indian classical music. Do not miss out on the folk performances that are an integral part of the culture and tradition of Karnataka. The state has also got fine transport connections and tourists can conveniently reach any important town of this state. International airports of the state are located in Mangalore and Bangalore. The rail and road network is equally well-maintained and you can access any of the important towns with ease. Know more about Karnataka by clicking on to touristplacesinindia.com which offers valuable information regarding the travel to Karnataka.

Punjab.. The Land Of Wariorrs

Punjab is one of the most prosperous states of the country and also ranks high among the leading tourist destinations of north India. The word Punjab is actually the combination of the two Persian words ‘panj’ meaning five and ‘ab’ meaning water which literally means the Land of Five Rivers. This state also has significant mythological connections since the epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata and various Vedas and Puranas have been traced back to this land. The rich culture and tradition of Punjab impresses everybody visiting this state. Hospitable people and colorful festivities are simply enchanting and being a part of the celebrations is a unique experience in itself. The key cities of Punjab are Amritsar, Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Mohali and Patiala and all these cities have their individual importance, be it tourism or industry. While on your travel to this historic land you will come across several landmarks. One of the prime tourist attractions in Punjab is the Golden Temple which is a highly revered Sikh pilgrimage spot. Jallianwalah Bagh is another historic spot near this temple where innocent people were massacred by the British army in the year 1919. Ludhiana is an important town of Punjab famous for the hosiery products industry. The town also features the Punjab Agricultural University which organises the Kisan Mela annually.
The major things to watch in the capital city Chandigarh are the Capitol Complex, Secretariat, Assembly, High Court, Tower of Shadows, Geometric Hill, Martyr's Memorial, Sukhna Lake, Rock Garden, Leisure Valley, Rose Garden, Garden of Tranquility, Garden of Rare Plants, Garden of Annuals, Bougainvillea Garden and Government Museum and Art Gallery. Make your holidays in Punjab a wonderful experience by putting up in the hotel of your choice. The major towns of Punjab offer a large number of lodging options that extend value added services with contemporary facilities. In Amritsar you can choose from the three star hotels among which Hotel Ritz Plaza is a prominent name. Similarly the leading hotels in Chandigarh are Hotel Regency, Hotel Maya Palace, Hotel Mount View and Shivalik View Hotel. Punjab should be visited between October to March when the climate is pleasant.
Punjab is well liked by the air, rail and road transport and the nearest airports are in Chandigarh and Amritsar. Punjab is equally well-connected by the rail transport and you can take the trains to the other parts of the country from the major railheads such as Chandigarh, Amritsar, Ludhiana, Pathankot, and Jalandhar. The road network of Punjab is simply commendable and you can reach to key destinations of India with ease. The interstate transport is also good and all the major towns of Punjab can be accessed by the state transport and private buses. For more information on Punjab, log on to the website touristplacesinindia.com which offers valuable inputs on tourist attractions in Punjab.

Tourist Places to see......

A land with a long and deep historical past, and accordingly, a wide variety of customs, communities, religions, and ideologies, India is a favorite choice of many travelers. Several foreign invasions and influences have resulted in various artistic and structural depictions, suggestive of the respective influences. These depictions comprise the various tourist places in India, which are, in turn, some of the prime reasons for the advent of thousands of tourists to this country of universal appeal. Owing to the variety that the country of India exudes in terms of climate, culture, topography, cuisine, art and architecture, you will have at your disposal a number of tourist places in India deserving a visit or two. To the north lie the states of Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Leh, Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir and northern West Bengal which are just the right places to be in to fulfill adventure quests. The Himalayas to the north are ideal destinations for trekkers and mountaineers. Trudge through the rough terrain of the steep ranges amidst green and pristine valleys. The backwaters of Kerala are some of the other natural tourist attractions in India that lure one and all.The cultural quests in the country of India will open up wide-ranging options, offering an array of different architectural styles. The states of Delhi, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Gujarat are the perfect choices in North India while Madurai, Tirupati and Chennai are the main centers of temple architecture in South India. The various fine and elaborate architectural and artistic specimens, bearing the Mughal and Hindu styles of art, are of utmost pleasure for genuine art connoisseurs. The Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, Agra Fort, the Bulund Darwaza, the Hawa Mahal etc are some of the remarkable instance of Mughal architecture. On the other hand, the Ajanta and Ellora Caves, temples of Khajuraho and Konark, Madurai and Tirupati etc are examples of Hindu architecture. The churches of Goa are again instances of Portuguese art and culture, offering a wide range of choices on a tour to India. Beaches – exotic, serene, fascinating, and tranquil – you get all kinds of beaches in India along its eastern and western coasts. Goa beaches are extremely vibrant, vivid and exotic, exuding an air of imposing vivacity. The cool breeze blowing through the swaying palms, the golden sands and the crystal clear waters will appeal to your senses. Chennai beaches are the same but the Puri beaches are more on the lines of tranquility. Make a trip of the various tourist places in India on your India tour and you will know the huge variety that the country offers, in the various forms and shapes.

The Uttar Pradesh

Uttar Pradesh tourism enables the tourists to explore the majesty of one of the most populated states of the country. The state is full of religious pilgrimages which are of importance for both the Hindus and Buddhists. Uttar Pradesh also retains the legacy of the Mughal dynasty and houses the famous icon and one of the world's seven wonders, the Taj Mahal. Uttar Pradesh has witnessed the rise and fall of various famous dynasties of Indian history. The region formed a part of the empire of King Ashoka. Archaeological artifacts excavated from the region stand as evidences of the glorious rule of Ashoka. Between the 11th and the 16th century, UP Tourism was dominated by the Mughal Dynasty. The economy and culture of the region flourished under the reign of the Mughal emperors. After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Nawabs of Avadh dominated the region. Under their patronage, the city of Lucknow emerged as a flourishing center of art and culture. The region played an important part during the Uprising of 1857 and since then has produced many heroic leaders. Once the capital of the Mughal rulers, Agra, now is one of the most popularly visited tourist destination sites of Uttar Pradesh. This old city is ornamented with the best Mughal architectural monuments, its crowning glory being the Taj Mahal. The memorial built of white marble was constructed by the Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan for his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Designed by Ustad Ahmad Lahori, a Persian Architect, the monument was completed in 22 years. It stands as a memorial of love and is visited by tourists from all over the world. Agra also houses the Agra Fort, on the bank of River Yamuna, which is built of massive red sandstone. Initially built for military purposes, the fort later became a palace for the Mughal Rulers. The construction of the fort was started by Emperor Akbar and completed by his grandson, Shah Jahan. Some of the other places to see in and around Agra include:
Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb
Chini Ka Rauza
Jami Masjid
Jahangir Mahal
Chisti's Tomb
Sikandra
Fatehpur Sikri Along with its oriental mysticism, Uttar Pradesh is also the heartland of the religion of Hinduism and Buddhism. Situated along the River Ganga and Assi, Varanasi is one of the oldest pilgrim cities of the country. It houses a large number of temples of which the Vishwanath Temple, Bharat Mata Temple, Tulsi Manas Temple and the Durga Temple are most reputed. The city is thronged by a large number of devotees round the year. Mathura and Ayodhya are the other popular cities of this state. Uttar Pradesh is also a popular seat of Buddhism. Lord Buddha preached his first sermon at Sarnath which is located in Uttar Pradesh. Dhamek Stupa, Bodhi Tree, Ashoka Pillar, Chaukandi Stupa, Dhamarajika Stupa and Moolgandha Kuti Vihara are some of the places to see in Sarnath. The capital city of Lucknow still retains the vestiges of the bygone era of Nawabs through the habits and manners of the residents. The city is the abode of a rich culture that is presented in the music, dance and delicacies of the city. The Imambaras and the bhulbhulaiyans are the only architectural splendors still present in the city.
A visit to Uttar Pradesh is incomplete without a visit to other renowned cities like:
Kausambi
Allahabad
Kushinagar
Chitrakoot
Mahoba
Deogarh
Jhansi
Kalinjar
Shravasti
Kanpur These tourist sites are well connected with the different parts of India through an excellent network of railways, roadways and airways. It is interesting to note that most of the cities are located in 'Grand Chord' route, which is one of the busiest routes of the country. National Highway Nos. 2, 25, 29, 45, 27 and 26 connect Uttar Pradesh to different parts of the country. Accommodation in Uttar Pradesh is easily available in some of the luxury and budget hotels of the state. Some of the major hotels of Uttar Pradesh are Taj Residency, Aypee Palace, Mughal Sheraton, The Oberoi Amar Vilas, Taj View, Hotel Clarks and Taj Ganges. These hotels are known for their warm hospitality and state-of-the-art facilities. The ideal time to visit the state is between the months of October and March. While winters in the state are cold, Uttar Pradesh is drained heavily during the monsoon season.